Grammar Notes¶

What Is Grammar and Why Does It Matter?¶

Key Concepts¶

Grammar: underlying system of rules of a language — what it can and cannot do.
Syntax: arrangement and inter-relations among words in a sentence.
Word classes (linguistics) vs parts of speech (traditional): function in context matters more than labels.
Grammar and glamour share Greek roots (grammatikos = of letters); both once meant learning.

Why Study Grammar?¶

You already have intuitive grammar; the goal is conscious command for writing.
Know rules so you know when to break them (Mingus: learn structures before improvising).
Philip Pullman: if readers don’t notice errors, they won’t mind correctness — and you’ll please those who care.
Sentence sense comes from reading widely — poor writers lack a reader’s perspective.

Quotes to Remember¶

Dot Wordsworth: It’s cruel not to teach grammar to children.
Harry Mount: If you don’t know grammar, you can’t write English.
Richard Weaver: Using a language is like riding a horse — success depends on knowing what it can do.

Parts of Speech and Word Classes¶

Traditional Parts of Speech¶

Part	Definition
Noun	Naming word
Pronoun	Noun substitute
Verb	Doing or being word
Adjective	Describes nouns/pronouns
Adverb	Describes adjectives, verbs, other adverbs
Article	Specifies definiteness (the) or indefiniteness (a)
Conjunction	Joining word
Preposition	Positions nouns in relation to other words
Interjection	Conveys emotion

Word Classes (Linguistics)¶

Form-class words (open/lexical): nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs — carry content.
Structure-class words (closed/function): articles, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns — connect and structure.

Function in a sentence determines classification — not the word alone.

Zombie rules to ignore: no split infinitives, no sentence-final prepositions, no starting with and/but.

Parts of a Sentence — Quick Reference¶

Part	Role	Memory aid
Noun	Names a person, place, or thing	Visualise it — Ram, chair
Pronoun	Substitutes for a noun	Links back — They came to my house
Verb	Action or state of being	Where all the action happens
Adjective	Modifies a noun	Decorates the noun for vivid pictures
Adverb	Modifies verb/adjective/adverb	Extra booster to the verb
Article	Specifies definiteness	a, the
Conjunction	Joins clauses/sentences	The joiner
Preposition	Shows relationship/position	Positions nouns
Interjection	Expresses emotion	Surprise!

Structure: Sentences, Phrases, and Clauses¶

Sentence Slots¶

Subject — who or what the sentence is about.
Predicate — what the subject does or is; must contain a finite verb.

Clause Types¶

Independent (main) clause: complete sentence on its own.
Dependent (subordinate) clause: incomplete alone — needs a main clause.

Sentence Forms¶

Simple: one independent clause.
Compound: two+ independent clauses (FANBOYS or semicolon).
Complex: one dependent + one independent clause.
Compound-complex: combination of both.

See also: weekly-lessons.rst (Week 2) for full details and examples.

Verb Tenses — Common Errors¶

Tense Shift Corrections¶

Wrong	Correct	Issue
…students who *asked questions during the lecture*	…students who *ask questions*	Present context needs present tense
…a low rumble *announces the approaching storm*	…a low rumble *announced the approaching storm*	Past narrative needs past tense
Yesterday we *walk to school*	Yesterday we *walked to school*	Past time marker requires past tense

When to Shift Tense¶

Shift tense to indicate a change in time frame:

The children love their new tree house, which they **built* themselves.* — present love, past building.
Before they even began deliberations, many jury members **had reached* a verdict.* — past perfect for earlier past action.
Workers are installing loudspeakers because the music **will need* amplification.* — present action, future need.

Verb Tense Consistency¶

Maintain a primary tense for the main discourse; shift only to indicate a change in time frame.

Wrong vs Right¶

Inconsistent (present + past mixed without reason):

The comedian continues to share more jokes as the audience applauded and asked for more.

Consistent (all present — simultaneous actions):

The comedian continues to share more jokes as the audience applaud and ask for more.

Justified shift (present + past — different time frames):

The children love to eat their cake, which they prepared themselves.

Tense by Purpose¶

Past: historical events, completed actions.
Present: facts, current actions, discussing ideas.
Future: events yet to happen.

Irregular Verbs¶

English has ~**200 irregular verbs** with 30–40 different patterns (e.g., sing/sang/sung).

Swahili has zero irregular verbs — all verbs follow regular patterns despite being highly inflected.

Common native-speaker errors: sung for sang, etc.

Common Sentence-Level Problems¶

Comma Splice¶

Commas do not join independent clauses — they cut.

And-ness (Rewrite Example)¶

Before:

Proposals are to be submitted in duplicate, and enclosed in a sealed envelope, and endorsed with a reference number, and shall be lodged at the address below.

After:

Proposals are to be submitted in duplicate, enclosed in a sealed envelope. They should be endorsed with a reference number and lodged at the address below.

See also: weekly-lessons.rst (Week 2) for fragments, run-ons, is-ness, and of-ness.

Oxford Comma¶

Also called serial comma or Harvard comma — the final comma before and/or in a list of three or more items.

I like computer science, maths, and programming.

Why Use It¶

Reduces ambiguity when items could be misread as appositives:

Without: To my parents, Alicia and Steve Jobs. — implies Alicia and Steve Jobs are the parents.
With: To my parents, Alicia, and Steve Jobs. — three separate entities.

When It Can Backfire¶

To my father, Steve Jobs, and Alicia.

The comma after father can suggest Steve Jobs is the father. Fix by restructuring:

To my father, to Steve Jobs, and to Alicia.

Rules of Thumb¶

Use consistently within a document.
AP style omits it; Oxford University Press and this course recommend it.
Matches spoken cadence of lists.
Requires 3+ items — no serial comma in two-item lists.

Grammar Gaffes — Armstrong’s Missing Article¶

Neil Armstrong’s line: “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”

The missing a before man makes both halves mean the same thing (humankind in general). Armstrong insisted he said “for **a* man”* — individual achievement vs collective — but the a was lost in transmission.

Why people cared: more can relate to English grammar than to landing on the moon. Geoff Pullum notes many grammar vigilantes take extreme stances on usage rules.